3D spatial and temporal resolution
https://www.intel.com
image registration — the computer-enhanced alignment of two medical images obtained at different dates or by using different imaging devices, in three-dimensional space.
parallel computer architecture and memory bandwidth
One way medical images are being improved is by using visual images from more than one source — magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computerized tomography (CT) scans for example.
Capacitive microfabricated ultrasound transducers (cMUTs) have been shown to be practical for medical imaging.
the “entire image manipulation chain“, starting with acquisition and ending with display and interpretation.
key display characteristics—luminance, matrix size, contrast resolution, and noise
The most obvious features of a display are screen size and spatial resolution.
Medical-grade displays typically involve technology that can monitor and adjust the backlight levels as they change over time, making these displays more stable than commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) displays.
Spatial noise and temporal noise affect the displayed image, contributing to the degradation of low-contrast images. More specifically, spatial noise arises from stationary pixel-to-pixel variation in output from spatial variation in the panel, whereas temporal noise consists primarily of Poisson noise from the emission of photons by the backlight, as well as from instabilities in the backlight and control electronics (3).
https://pubs.rsna.org/doi/full/10.1148/rg.331125096luminance uniformity
The backlight of a display has its own particular tint, or chromaticity
Luminance is a photometric measure of luminous intensity.
The luminance ratio of a display – “ the relationship between its digital drive levels (e.g. 0-255) and the resulting screen luminace.
Contrast ratio – the ratio between the maximum and minimum brightness, or in other words, the ratio between the brightest white and the darkest black.
contrast resolution, or the perceptibility of different gray-scale values (DDLs), in an image.
the newest “retinal” resolution displays (application for registered trademark made by Apple Computer, Cupertino, Calif)
https://medium.com/vertexventures/ai-chipsets-where-china-still-needs-to-prove-itself-630984f700fd
environment (cloud, edge, or hybrid).
” Medical imaging industry is being transformed by two technology trends – Artificial Intelligence and Software defined workflows. “
content management system (CMS)
‘multi-core processors
the popular parallel programming framework, CUDA. (Compute Unified Device Architecture)
Graphics processing units (GPUs)
Field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs)
Application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs)
GPU is always designed for a particular class of applications with the following characteristics (2): (I) large computational requirements, (II) substantial parallelism, and (III) throughout is more important than latency
1999 – NVIDIA – first graphics processing unit
In late 2006, NVIDIA Corporation launched the CUDA development platform, which is a novel programming interface and environment for the general-purpose programming of its own GPU.
massively parallel architecture of modern GPUs, with hundreds of cores[CPUs with several cores, and GPU’s with hundreds of cores]
HP and IBM: some of the first companies to introduce silicon hardware capable of generating imagery
scientific applications, movies, video games
‘object models’ – a mesh of triangles
“graphics pipeline”- sequence of steps in rendering images
Often, most of the pipeline steps are implemented in hardware, which allows for special optimizations
A graphics pipeline can be divided into three main parts: Application, Geometry and Rasterization.[4]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_pipeline
“camera space”
‘a grid hierarchy of thread blocks’
development of games using color graphics
cathode ray tubes——–LCDs
analog————digital
Virtual Reality—-1966
1988 -Pixar – ‘shader programs’
3D rendering
organic light-emitting diode (OLED) screens, — offer smaller components, faster response time than LCD, and the ability to display quick motion with virtually no blur. An OLED display works without a backlight, so it can display deep black levels and can be made thinner and lighter than an LCD.
Most medical-grade displays now have built-in quality control (QC) monitoring systems, often integrated into the screen bhttps://www.itnonline.com/article/evolution-medical-imaging-displaysezel. These measure brightness and gray scale tones and calibrate the display to the DICOM Part 14 standard. This can help automate QC tasks and reduce monitor quality control workload and maintenance costs.
the X-Cal Web-based calibration software suite, — allows remote DICOM calibration and conformance, luminance adjustment, reporting, MQSA testing and documentation, e-mail alerting, scheduling and enterprise-wide display management. Double Black Imaging also demonstrated its new X-Cal Mobile app, which allows for complete enterprise control on iPhone, iPad and Android devices.
multimodality display — a color display in order to handle the color in images, such as PET or ultrasound, but it also needs to have the brightness, contrast, resolution, and grayscale calibration to properly display grayscale images such as DR, CR, CT, and MRI.” One further step to a fully multimodality display would be to include mammography images from full-field digital mammography (FFDM) and digital breast tomosynthesis (DBT).
Another key difference between medical and commercial displays deals with automation of the backlighting system. Medical displays have a closed-loop control circuit to maintain stable peak luminance from a cold start to full warm-up. The medical display’s automated precision photometer continuously approximates desired peak luminance several times a second, providing a consistent level of luminance. The equivalent feature on a commercial display is the brightness control, which a user controls manually across a spectrum of light and dark without any reference to an absolute level of luminance. A commercial unit would require impossible levels manual calibration to provide the consistency a medical monitor delivers.
” Depending on where they fall in the medical imaging workflow, the systems are known by different names: • Diagnostic imaging workstations, used in dedicated imaging departments, have features that are tailored to interpret images accurately and allow imaging professionals to efficiently generate official reports to assist in patient management. • Clinical review workstations, located in hospital wards, are tailored to enable simple image review and access to the imaging report. • Dedicated 3D viewing workstations, used to review advanced, volumetric multidetector CT and MRI data, are equipped with powerful 3D graphics processors, workflow guided measurements, and specialized applications. ”
monitors—– compatible with Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM) standards for handling, storing, and transmitting information in medical imaging
LCD Technologies Used in Modern Monitors
cybernetman.com
- TN Panel: Twisted Nematic (TN) is the oldest and the most common panel type. It is also cheap because it is easy to manufacture – you can see them in low-end monitors and laptops. Its strongest point is the fast response time. When coupled with a LED backlighting, TN monitors are energy-efficient and provide high brightness. However, the color distortions at moderate to wide viewing angles results in low quality of the image, and low accuracy.
- IPS Panel: In-Plane Switching monitors reproduce colors noticeably better than TN. IPS also offers better readability and color stability at extreme viewing angles. However, IPS panels have a lower light transmittance than Vertical Alignment monitors. With the advent of S-IPS (Super-IPS), the response time and contrast have improved. IPS also allows for color calibration.
- VA Panel: Vertical Alignment (VA) is the technology that combines the advantages of the above two, offering better light and color transmittance. Yet, the contrast is poor at extreme viewing angles.
- MVA Panel: Multi-Domain Vertical Alignment (MVA) is a combination of a VA panel and a compensation film. It offers excellent image quality at extreme viewing angles, and a fast response time surpassing that of the IPS monitors. MVA also offers better blacks and contrast than IPS or TN monitors. The color reproduction of an MVA monitor is better than that of the TN. MVA medical monitors combine high quality with affordable price – a perfect fit for clinical review purposes.
- AFFS Panel: Advanced Fringe Field Switching (AFFS) offers superior performance, color reproduction and high luminosity, minimum color distortion at extreme viewing angles and great white/gray reproduction. AFFS is used in high-end panels in commercial aircraft displays mounted in cockpits. Later it evolved into HFFS (High-Transmittance Fringe Field Switching) and AFFS+ with enhanced readability on outdoor environments. The most expensive type.
neuromorphic chips
REFERENCES:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0895611107000262
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8778908
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6186003/
https://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~jce317/history-medical-imaging.html
https://www.scijournal.org/impact-factor-of-comput-med-imag-grap.shtml